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Development And Application Of Models For The Stability Analysis Of Australia’s Offshore Pipelines
Offshore subsea pipelines are used to export oil and gas from the field to platform and then from the platform to the mainland. As they are the sole conduit for the hydrocarbons their stability and integrity are of critical economic and environmental importance. With more than 80 per cent of Australia’s gas resources in deep, remote, offshore areas, the ability to realise their full potential relies on the development of safe and economically viable solutions to transport them. Pipelines offshore Australia must maintain structural integrity and continuous supply of products across hundreds of kilometres of seabed. This paper discusses one aspect of this challenge. It concentrates on how to design for stability of untrenched pipelines under storm conditions. Force balance methods commonly applied are first described before the benefits of using a dynamic time domain approach are shown by way of example. Novel macroelement plasticity models that describe the force-displacement behaviour of a vertically and laterally loaded pipe in Australian soils are outlined. Their application is shown in the design example.
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Dynamic embedment of projectiles in clay
This paper provides an overview of the work of the Australian Research Council-funded Centre for Geotechnical Science and Engineering on free falling projectiles that have applications as seabed characterisation tools and as anchoring systems for floating facilities. These projectiles are released in water and dynamically embed into the seabed through the kinetic energy they gain during freefall. The high penetration velocity, which can be up to 25 m/s at impact with the seabed, induces shear strain rates in the soil that are up to eight orders of magnitude higher than in a typical laboratory test. The difficulty in quantifying the soil strength at these very high strain rates, together with hydrodynamic aspects including pressure drag and potential water entrainment along the projectile-soil interface, complicates assessment of the penetration response. A large database of centrifuge and field data has been collated by the Centre and is used in this paper to quantify embedment potential and to examine the merit of a simple analytical framework that captures the dynamic response of free-falling projectiles. Aspects of the dynamic embedment process that cannot be predicted by the analytical framework, including potential hole closure during installation and pore pressure generation are investigated in finite element analyses that model the dynamic penetration of projectiles in soil. Example results from these analyses are provided.
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Correlation between point load strength index and uniaxial compressive strength in Sunshine Coast sandstone
Strength is an important engineering parameter for determining excavatability and load bearing characteristics of rock. Because of the low test cost, it is desirable to identify a multiplier relating the Point Load Test Strength Index (Is(50)) with strength derived using the more expensive Uniaxial Compressive Strength Test. Samples from eight test locations on the Sunshine Coast were tested using both techniques and data were analysed using multiple regression incorporating differences between the eight locations. A multiplier of 17 is observed to produce the most accurate results when inferring UCS from Is(50). This compares with the typical local multiplier of 15. UCS prediction from Is(50) results in substantial errors in some cases and complete reliance on Point Load Strength is not recommended. We recommend that UCS testing should be carried out for each engineering project and multipliers be determined on a site specific basis.
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Annualised Probabilities of Pit Slope Failures Using Two Methods
A novel framework for assessing the annualised probabilities of slope failures in open-pit mining is presented by integrating traditional geomechanical models with a comprehensive semi-quantitative assessment of multiple sources of information available for the pit design. The methodology is developed through a comparative analysis of two distinct methods applied to a real-world case study, allowing for a deeper understanding of slope failure probabilities and their implications for risk management. The paper emphasizes the importance of moving beyond conventional adimensional probability of failure (APoF) definitions to estimate annualised probability of failure (PoF) values. A novel quantitative methodology is introduced to estimate the annual PoF of slopes based on geomechanical values, incorporating considerations of slope lifespan and factor of safety (FoS). Additionally, ORE2_Slopes is presented as an alternative semi-quantitative probabilistic evaluation method, and its estimates are compared with literature benchmarks and real- life pit experiences. The study highlights the significance of estimating annualised PoFs for quantitative risk assessment (QRA), considering various parameters such as time dependency, human factors, and monitoring for a comprehensive risk evaluation. The methodology aims to provide a unified framework that balances geomechanical considerations with expert judgement assessments, offering practical tools for informed decision-making in open pit designs.
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Geotechnics offshore Australia – beyond traditional soil mechanics
This paper provides an overview of current research into, and practice of, offshore geotechnics in Australia. Offshore geotechnics is a specialism within geotechnical engineering, and offshore geotechnics in Australia involves a further level of specialism, associated with the carbonate soil conditions found across our oil and gas development regions.
The geotechnical challenges faced by Australia’s offshore developments are continually evolving as exploration moves from shallow to deep water and the types of offshore facilities evolve. Previous projects in shallow water have led to the development of new piled foundation design methods and construction technologies, and have generated new solutions suited to local soil conditions, such as shallow cemented layers. Current research is now mainly focused on deep water sediments, anchoring and shallow foundations (rather than piled foundations), long pipeline networks and the geohazards faced beyond the continental shelf. Examples of research and novel design practice show that much of this technology lies beyond traditional ‘text book soil mechanics’. Defining characteristics of the deepwater frontiers include large deformations and transforming soil properties.
These challenges open up refreshing new avenues of research, and provide exciting challenges to the designer. Driven by these local needs, Australia is recognised globally as a leader in offshore geotechnics, and many of the technologies presented in this paper have become Australian exports into global practice.
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Advancing Australia’s facilities for physical modelling in geotechnics
This paper presents details of the advancements of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Geotechnical Science and Engineering to the apparatus, facilities and methods for physical modelling in geotechnics. This advancement includes (i) the launch of a National Geotechnical Centrifuge Facility with a new 10 m diameter fixed beam centrifuge that will be capable of spinning 2.4 tonnes of soil at 100 gravities, (ii) a new mobile soft soil in situ testing laboratory, (iii) a new national facility for the cyclic testing of high-speed rail and (iv) three recirculating flumes, called O-tubes, which are presented in another paper of this special issue. This paper provides an overview of this new equipment and the aims of the research that it will underpin. The equipment will provide enhanced possibilities for Australia to conduct project specific testing for future energy and transportation infrastructure developments, nationally and internationally.
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Waste Containment: Strategies & Performance
This paper reviews strategies for lining and covering waste containment systems, as well as systems used to remove leachate. Emphasis is placed on factors influencing field performance. Field performance data indicate that compacted clay liners and composite liners are performing as intended, and that their performance can be predicted with standard calculation methods. Resistive covers employing a soil barrier with low saturated hydraulic conductivity as the primary impedance to flow have been shown to perform poorly due to the effects of desiccation and frost action. Covers with a composite barrier layer or water balance covers have a much better performance record, and can effectively eliminate percolation into waste. The performance of leachate collections systems ranges from poor to excellent depending on the design and materials of construction. Successful leachate collection systems are constructed with coarse uniformly graded gravel with little fines and are overlain by a non-woven geotextile filter.
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Frontiers in deepwater geotechnics: Optimising geotechnical design of subsea foundations
This paper outlines a toolbox of methods for optimising the geotechnical design of subsea foundations. Subsea foundations are becoming increasingly widespread as offshore development moves away from the conventional template of a fixed platform over a set of wells to subsea development of multiple wells and fields tied back to a single facility. Subsea developments comprise a network of infield flowlines and assorted pipeline and wellhead infrastructure, which is typically supported on shallow, mat foundations. The optimisation methods presented cover (i) capacity assessment methodology, (ii) foundation configuration, (iii) geotechnical input and (iv) mode of operation. The research results derive from a combination of physical model testing in a geotechnical centrifuge, numerical analysis and theoretical modelling. Many of the research results have been immediately adopted in engineering practice in Australia and overseas, demonstrating the relevance of the methods to the national and international offshore hydrocarbon industries.
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Significance of Atterberg limits on compressibility parameters of alluvial deposits – New correlations
Various methods and empirical correlations are available to predict consolidation parameters. Use of empirical correlations for consolidation parameters can not be generalized for all places and all soils. Empirical correlations should be used only after verifying their feasibility for a particular region or type of soils. Consolidation testing is expensive and reliability is poor due to sampling disturbance. Time is required to investigate with more time to finalize the soil report. Normally a soil report excludes the consolidation tests. In such cases empirical correlations are very useful to estimate consolidation settlement of shallow foundations. The test results and datasets containing index and consolidation parameters are used to conduct a statistical study to determine suitable correlations for estimating consolidation response of alluvial soil. This statistical analysis is carried out in order to obtain the most suitable and practically applicable relationships. New correlations are proposed for prediction of compression index and compression ratio using liquid limit, plasticity index, water content, void ratio and porosity (n0) for alluvial deposits of Surat city and surroundings situated in the Gujarat state of India. Correlations obtained using Atterberg limits having higher value of correlation coefficient. These correlations are use for prediction of compressibility parameters for all zones of Surat city and SUDA (Surat Urban Development Authority) region of South Gujarat in India.
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A Smart Geotechnical And Geological Approach For Future Building And Transport Infrastructure Projects
There is a rapid and unprecedented scale of infrastructure planning and development across the Sydney region. A SMART approach that captures historical ground investigation and regional geological data is required to support early transport planning by Government. This will allow the refinement of geological and geotechnical knowledge gaps that will be augmented with additional investigation once these corridors are further assessed as the design develops. To allow a SMART approach in infrastructure planning and development, Government Departments and potentially the private sector could integrate their internal geological and geotechnical data as part of a centralised state-wide data collection centre. This will require Government to legislate a registry system for factual geotechnical data for all Departments and Authorities. Consideration would also need to be given to how to release this information from the private sector many of whom would claim this was their intellectual property despite typically being derived (and paid services for) from Government projects.
Consideration should be given to a two-stage process so as not to derail the implementation due to potential delays with the private sector:
- Combine and integrate geological and geotechnical data from historical Government projects including those delivered under corporatised government entities.
- Integration of factual data obtained from the private sector.
Any data compiled under both (i) and (ii) will need to be relied upon without any impact or recourse to the originators. This has been key to the success of similar data sharing mechanisms in the United Kingdom (British Geological Survey) and the Netherlands (Dutch Geological Survey).
A way of making this work successfully in New South Wales, following successful international models such the UK and Netherlands, is to have government allow contracts or documentation to have historic data relied upon. The State will achieve better value for money by way of having significantly more geological and geotechnical data as part of Environmental Impacts Statements to inform approvals and stakeholders as well as for its Request for Proposals (RFP). In all cases with more reliable information a better outcome will be achieved by way of increased certainty and avoiding approval delays, possible injunctions, as well as more informed Request for Tenders (RFTs).