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In situ and laboratory testing of soft clays
Current Australian practice for sampling, laboratory testing, and in situ testing of soft clays falls short of world’s best practices. Consequences include risks of increased cost and time during construction, as well as geotechnical solutions that are more elaborate than necessary. Some limitations in current practice are identified and alternative methods are proposed that provide higher data quality at similar cost to current methods and improved understanding of the geomaterials under study, thus optimizing the selection of geotechnical solutions.
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Level 1 Inspection And Testing: Reliability Or Liability?
In 1990, when the earthworks Guidelines were first introduced, adoption of Level 1 Inspection and Testing in accordance with AS3798 was seen as the panacea for standard practice in the industry for the determination of compliance with specification requirements for compaction of fill. Since then, the use of Level 1 responsibility has become widespread on large earthworks contracts where an engineered fill is the required product. Reliability of the engineering performance of compacted fill was seen as the main selling point for justification to principals.
Experience has shown there are many limitations associated with implementation of the concept outlined in the Guidelines, so that the result is a liability for many stakeholders in an earthworks contract. This paper explores some of the challenges associated with implementation of Level 1 Inspection and Testing, as it is now known, which can reduce the goal of ‘reliability’ to a ‘liability’ for the stakeholders in the earthworks contract. These challenges include:
- physical limitations of workload for the Geotechnical Inspection and Testing Authority/Geotechnical Testing Authority;
- whether sufficient testing is completed to reliably identify problem “hot spots”;
- whether sufficient data is recorded to enable audit of traceability of completed testing;
- the low relative cost of testing in relation to contract value;
- whether remuneration rates for Geotechnical Testing Authority staff are sufficient in relation to siteoperatives to resist temptations;
- what liabilities may arise for the stakeholders from defects or problems in the finished product;
- what remedies may be available to rectify the challenges;
- whether results of testing some time after completion are still representative;
- whether the GITA/GTA should be part of the contractors QA/QC system to enable better integration.
The authors do not intend to provide answers to these challenges, but to initiate some discussion.
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The implementation of the AGS Guidelines in the Colac Otway Shire – History and challenges
A paper by Dahlhaus and Miner (2002) describing the proposed implementation of the Australian Geomechanics Society (AGS) landslide risk guidelines (AGS 2000) in the Colac Otway Shire was included with the proceedings of the national AGS roadshow in 2002. The paper described the development of a process through the Shire’s planning scheme for determining when a Landslide Stability Assessment was required and what steps were to be undertaken by both the regulator and the consultant. The original paper highlighted issues and challenges faced in applying the AGS (2000) guidelines by the regulator, the consultants and the development applicant.
This paper reviews progress in the intervening period and difficulties encountered by the Colac Otway Shire in implementing the landslide risk management (LRM) planning process since it was first proposed in 2000. The paper describes planning amendments and various iterations to the scheme and discusses inherent difficulties encountered along the way.
The paper also examines some of the challenges and difficulties faced in implementing the schemes under the Victorian Planning Provisions as well as those faced in the administration of LRM within the planning scheme. The final conclusion from the implementation process of LRM in Colac Otway Shire is to adapt landslide zonation to the specifics of the local situation in terms of available data and information, to use the AGS guidelines where possible but to be prepared to review and fine tune as is inevitably required in the implementation of any local government planning scheme.
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Improvements to the Australian wheel tracking protocol for asphalt deformation resistance measurement
With the introduction of new pavement technologies, asphalt performance-based mixture design has become increasingly important in the pavement industry. A key consideration for performance-based mixture design is to ensure that laboratory performance-indicative tests link sample preparation and test parameters to expected in-field conditions appropriately. For the performance assessment of deformation resistance, the most common test method in Australia is the wheel tracking test. Recent research involving the assessment of stone mastic asphalt deformation resistance properties identified several elements of the Australian wheel tracking protocol requiring improvement. This paper details recommendations to improve the Australian wheel tracking protocol in terms of sample preparation and laboratory test parameters, to increase reliability of the results and to better link laboratory assessment to in-field performance.
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Coal extraction and ground movement at Huntly East Coal Mine, New Zealand
This paper provides a novel and representative method for characterising coal extraction layouts. This method was used to support an investigation of the correlation between the extraction layout and the ground movement in Huntly East coal mine, New Zealand. A 250 m borehole inclinometer was installed to monitor the strata movement that occurred as underground mining approached the borehole, by measuring the movement of the casing within the borehole. The inclinometer measurement was undertaken once a month on average. In order to analyse the correlation between coal extraction and ground movement, multiple extraction areas for each month were organised into one area. In order to determine the magnitude and location of the extraction in terms of its induced ground movement, the delay time of subsidence was first defined by data analysis. The correlation between the coal extraction and the ground subsidence had been established. Finally, the correlations between the nearest extraction edge and the lateral movement were represented by three nonlinear regression equations. The three equations have been validated by numerical modelling; this is not discussed in the paper. Lateral movement has been analysed and characterised in this study, but vertical subsidence has only been identified to exist and was not discussed in detail due to the limited dataset available.
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Re-engineering Old Foundations For A New Structure – Greenland Centre
The concept of reusing existing building elements during site redevelopment within urban environments is gaining momentum. With ever-increasing pressure from modern society for engineers to focus on sustainable solutions, the industry is also beginning to recognise other benefits from maintaining, improving or re-engineering existing structures. These include fast tracking decommissioning and construction programs while at the same time saving on demolition and waste disposal costs. Along with the various challenges, such as testing, confirming the integrity of older structures and understanding foundation conditions, one of the major obstacles to effectively reusing existing building elements is the often complex re-engineering required to design and prove a solution is viable. In urban areas where space is at a premium, usually the ‘bigger is better’ approach prevails, and existing columns and footings will be required to support higher applied loads than they were originally designed to carry.
The Greenland Centre in Sydney’s CBD is an example where the re-use of existing structural elements has been successfully adopted, by re-engineering of footing arrangements. The steel portal frame and piled footings of an old 27 storey building were retained, with the piles augmented with new pad footings to increase the footing bearing capacity to support a significantly higher 67 storey building. Finite element analysis was conducted to assess various footing arrangements to optimise the final design so that serviceability limits for the new structure could be achieved. Settlement monitoring and stress, strain measurements have been conducted through construction, with results so far shown to be within the limits predicted in the initial modelling process.
The paper discusses the general issues involved in the reuse of foundations and present results from the Greenland Centre to illustrate the advantages and challenges of reusing existing foundation elements.
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Application of pile test data for geotechnical site characterisation of Seaford and Carrum
Victoria’s Level Crossing Removal Project is removing 75 level crossings across Melbourne to improve safety, reduce congestion and allow more trains to run more often. The Southern Program Alliance (SPA) is delivering the Frankston line section – a $3 billion upgrade removing 18 level crossings and building 12 new stations. The Seaford level crossing removal works are complete, and those in Carrum, Mentone and Cheltenham are under construction.
At Seaford, dynamic pile testing analysis of continuous flight auger (CFA) pile foundations and rigid inclusions, using pile driving analyser (PDA) testing and Case Pile Wave Analysis Program (CAPWAP) analysis, was carried out to validate pile design assumptions. The results were correlated to in-situ and laboratory soil classification testing to characterise the site’s geology in terms of pile performance. This enabled the testing results to be used to refine the geotechnical design of CFA pile foundations for the Carrum rail viaduct, about two kilometres north of Seaford, in the same geology.
This paper discusses characterisation of geological units encountered at Seaford using pile test data, and the subsequent geotechnical design of the Carrum rail viaduct foundations. Comparing soil classification tests from Seaford to Carrum showed good agreement, and satisfied the designers that the Seaford pile test data was applicable for use in the foundation design at Carrum. Furthermore, this paper compares the correlation of geotechnical strength parameters with available empirical correlations, and comments on the benefits and limitations of this site classification and design approach.
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AGS Sydney Symposium 2023
Sustainable Geotechnics in Design, Materials, Construction and Maintenance
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Recent advances in the design of Australia’s transport infrastructure: an overview of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Geotechnical Science and Engineering Activities
The ARC Centre of Excellence for Geotechnical Science and Engineering (CGSE) was established in 2011 to pioneer new scientific approaches for the design of Australia’s energy and transport infrastructure. This paper presents an overview of selected CGSE projects relevant to testing and modelling of soft soils, the development of computational methods for the failure analysis of geotechnical infrastructure, and the assessment and mitigation of rockfall hazard. The first part is dedicated to findings from Australia’s first National Field Testing Facility for soft soils, established by the CGSE in Ballina, NSW. Emphasis is put on i) the geotechnical characterisation of soft estuarine clay deposits, ii) the performance of a full- scale trial embankment on soil improved with prefabricated vertical drains, and iii) outcomes of an international symposium on predicting the behaviour of embankments on soft soils. The second part discusses the use of the Finite Element Limit Analysis method to estimate efficiently and accurately the collapse load of geostructures, and the application of this method to determine the required internal tunnel support pressure to prevent collapse. The paper concludes with the presentation of novel numerical and experimental methods to model rockfalls and to assess the performance of protective systems in the laboratory and in situ.
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Soft Soil Case History: Shellharbour Sewage Treatment Plant upgrade
This paper describes ground engineering challenges and solutions employed at a soft ground site near Shellharbour, New South Wales. Geotechnical issues encountered during the sewage treatment plant upgrade project included:
- Deep peaty soils at the backfilled swamp site
- High groundwater level and potentially high inflows through permeable fill
- Large clarifier tank excavations (approx 80 m x 80 m x 5 m deep)
- Flooding and acid sulphate soils
- Potential settlement impacts on existing infrastructure.
Ground engineering risks were successfully managed through adequate scoping of investigations, numerical modelling of designs and involvement of geotechnical engineers during construction. A comparison of actual versus predicted behaviour for an anchored sheetpile wall is presented, enabling an evaluation of WALLAP and PLAXIS software. The value of geotechnical observations and monitoring during construction is also discussed.