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Digitalisation and Automation of Road Materials Compaction: SPARC Intelligent Compaction Kit
‘Intelligent Compaction’ (IC) broadly refers to the compaction of road materials, primarily using advanced sensing and automation, which achieves the target performance over their design life. Our recent international workshop on intelligent compaction highlighted that countries like US and China have implemented IC technology in practice as a mandatory requirement for contractors almost 6 years ahead of Australia. Our online questionnaire survey results indicated that the slow adoption of IC technology in Australia is mainly due to the lack of standards or specifications for the use of IC technology and the lack of confidence among contractors who already have an existing fleet of conventional rollers for compaction. There are some retrofittable kits available in the market that can facilitate IC with conventional rollers. However, the main limitation of these kits is that they provide only one parameter out of various intelligent compaction meter values (ICMVs). We are developing an innovative kit with cutting-edge hardware and software tools to facilitate performance-based compaction of road materials. The key features of our kit include [i] facilitating simultaneous visualisation of multiple ICMVs on both onboard and remote systems in real-time during compaction, [ii] providing versatility to retrofit a conventional roller, [iii] flexibility to incorporate corrections for different ICMV indicators, [iv] facilitates customising to construction specifications in line with the ongoing industrial digitalisation, and [v] integrable with the existing post-processing software such as Veta to view and analyse the collected IC data. In this paper, we provide the basic design concepts of the kit, its functionalities and capabilities with initial test results. The design concepts of the kit prototype will be further refined in the future based on the field trials undertaken on different materials using different roller types. The experiences gained through using our kit in actual construction projects will pave the way to develop robust and data-oriented specifications for IC to be used by the Australian road construction industry.
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Bayesian Approach To Improve The Confidence Of The Estimation Of The Shear Strength Of Coarse Mine Waste Using Barton’s Empirical Criterion
The evaluation of the shear strength of waste rock is required for the verification of the stability of high waste dumps, especially those that reach hundreds of meters in height. Mine waste rock material in open pit mining contains particles of metric scale which precludes the utilisation of commercial laboratory testing equipment. To overcome testing limitations, the shear strength of waste rock is frequently estimated using the empirical criterion of Barton-Kjærnsli. This criterion takes into consideration the nonlinearity of the shear strength envelope, characterising the behaviour of very coarse granular materials submitted to high loads. In the criterion, a stress-dependent structural component of the shear strength is parametrised with the equivalent roughness (R) and equivalent strength (S) and the structural component is added to the basic friction angle (φb) of the parental rock to determine the shear strength of the waste rock material. This paper demonstrates the use of Bayesian inference to determine the best set of parameters φb, R and S that satisfied both: large-scale laboratory testing results characterising a waste rock material, and reconciliation data from observations of stability of the waste dumps. The methodology allows the estimation of project-specific model parameters that honour both, laboratory data and site performance information. This objective is achieved through the estimation of correction factors to downgrade the strength from laboratory to field scale.
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Assessment Of The Coefficient Of Consolidation With Queensland Data
Established relationships between the coefficient of consolidation (cv) and index tests are used during both preliminary design and as a cross check during detailed design. The laboratory oedometer test provides compressibility parameters and a lower bound of cv, while the coefficients of consolidation are preferred from the field dissipation tests. However, cv is dependent on the method used to determine its value, stress level, and over-consolidation ratio. In practice, the coefficient of consolidation values obtained from dissipation tests are used to predict settlement time, while oedometer tests are useful in obtaining the parameter required to predict the magnitude of settlement. However, dissipation tests measure the horizontal coefficient of consolidation (ch) which needs to be related back to the vertical value. These standard approaches are discussed using test data from Queensland sites. Inconsistencies in correlations are used to show that design should consider the wide variability in interpretations that can occur, and correlations of cv with index tests should not be used in detailed design. Additionally, the cv values obtained from oedometer testing is a poor predictor of time for consolidation. This could also be due to the size of samples being not large enough for the soil structure. Monitoring data from construction sites are used to assess a “moderately” conservative design value from dissipation and lab tests.
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Sustainable Engineering Solution for Slope Stability with Anchor Reinforced Vegetation System (ARVS)
Sustainability and resiliency are becoming more important in project design, with emphasis being placed on the environmental impact. Slope stability solutions should be designed to provide a low environmental impact to achieve long-term performance and overall project success. During design, it is important to consider factors such as durability, economics and environmental impacts. The Anchor Reinforced Vegetation System (ARVS) is recognised as a sustainable armouring and slope stability solution proving both surficial stability and erosion control at the same time. An ARVS is a component system consisting of a High Performance Turf Reinforcement Mat (HPTRM) to provide erosion protection and surficial strength, coupled with Percussion Driven Earth Anchors (PDEAs) for resistance to shallow-plane instability. The system is designed to optimise rapid vegetation growth and keep soil in place, thereby resisting mobilisation of soil masses associated with sliding failures of slopes. Key physical and material properties of the component system include optimal ultraviolet resistance, flexibility, and tensile strength of the HPTRM, along with its ability to promote vegetation establishment through increased soil and moisture retention. PDEAs can be selected in various lengths and strengths and are composed of corrosion-resistant material to ensure longevity while maintaining ease of installation. Design methodology of the ARVS for reinforcement against relatively shallow translational sliding failures consists of an infinite slope method solution adapted for the inclusion of PDEAs. Procedures for utilising the ARVS for relatively deep-seated rotational sliding failures include the modelling of stability using conventional limit equilibrium methods. Components of the ARVS are integrated into the model using slope stability modelling software. Results include the potential for an engineered ARVS solution for specific cases of reinforcement for slope stability. The sustainability of the ARVS solution including environmental parameters such as carbon footprint, economical and engineering aspects is analysed and compared with traditional solutions. An example of the practical application of the design methodology is demonstrated.
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Working platforms -To BRE or not to BRE is the question
The Building Research Establishment (BRE) produced a practice guide for working platforms for tracked plant, which has become a “standard” in the industry in the absence of any other widely published simple design method. The BRE design method does not apply for thick platforms or for soft subgrades, but continues to be used in those applications in the absence of an alternative document. A case study is discussed which applies the BRE in such a situation, but then compares with alternative methods to assess the required working platform. Additionally a stochastic approach is used with the BRE method, given its sensitivity to the material strength parameters input, to provide a risk understanding rather than a factor of safety approach which does not define the risk explicitly. The derivation of the parameter inputs is discussed to show how assumed values for preliminary design and measured values produce different design platform thickness. Given the consequences of a failure, a construction control proof roll testing was used with deflection criteria. The derivation of this criterion is presented.
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Simplified analysis of the strength of anchor plates in a cohesionless soil: Part 1 – Analytcial solutions
Two and three dimensional analytical solutions for the strength of anchor plates buried in a cohesionless soil are derived. Anchor plates that are oriented horizontally, vertically and inclined are considered. The aim of the paper is to present simple and understandable solutions based on geometrically defining the mass of soil mobilised by the movement of an anchor. The weight of this soil mass and the soil friction forces acting on it balance the maximum anchor pull which can thus be determined. Corroboration of the analytical solutions has been obtained by model tests of anchors buried in clean dry sand. The model tests and the experimental results that have been obtained are described in Part 2 of this two-part paper.
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Estimation of foundation movement and design of footing systems on reactive soils for the effects of trees
The paper details the method of designing for the effects of trees as set out in a new informative Appendix H in the revised Residential Slabs and Footings Standard, AS2870, published by Standards Australia in February 2011. Background to the recommendations is given along with an introduction into research efforts that may improve designs in the future. In essence, the recommendations have been formulated in the light of more than 20 years successful use in South Australia of simple rules promulgated by the Footings Group (South Australia). Other evidence, generally from case studies of damaged houses, has been gathered in different climates, which supports the general premises of the recommendations and the extrapolation of the method to areas with wetter climates.
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Laboratory geotechnical characterisation of scalped coal mine spoil
The sedimentary overburden materials in the Australian coalfields vary from essentially uncemented rocks to cemented sandstones, including variations between these extremes. The uncemented spoil materials break down on excavation to extract coal and bulk up to a very loose density on end-dumping by haul truck in spoil piles. These loose materials then undergo three forms of settlement: due to their self-weight, “collapse” settlement on wetting by rainfall, and settlement due to degradation on exposure to weather, resulting in a substantial increase in density. Due to their lack of cementation, these spoil materials degrade rapidly on exposure to the weather, leading to significant settlement, followed by some reversal on re-agglomeration and swell. Collapse and degradation-induced settlements, both being associated with exposure to water, occur simultaneously on wetting. Wetting also causes a substantial reduction in the shear strength of the materials. The cemented spoil materials undergo more limited breakdown on excavation, dumping and wetting. Cemented spoil materials bulk up to a more limited degree on excavation, and settle less after dumping, than uncemented spoil materials. The paper characterises uncemented and cemented overburden materials excavated on open pit coal mining, and quantifies the laboratory compaction, shear strength, compressibility and degradation of scalped samples.
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Temperature and density effect on swelling characteristics and permeability of bentonite
A series of experiments was conducted at the Geosphere Research Institute of Saitama University, Japan to evaluate the temperature and density effects upon the swelling characteristics and permeability of bentonite. The density and proportion of bentonite in bentonite-sand mixtures were the prime criteria used to evaluate the swelling pressure and deformation of bentonite-sand mixtures, particularly when used as a buffer material in waste disposal facilities. Temperature is also an important factor for control of the swelling rate of compacted bentonite. To predict the coefficient of permeability an equation has been proposed in relation to bentonite void ratio and plasticity index for any type of bentonite.